Exploring the Nexus of Identity Formation, Student–Teacher Interaction, and TPACK in Virtual and Face-to-Face ESP Instruction

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the relationships among identity formation, student–teacher interaction, perceived ESP instructional qualities and competencies, TPACK, and digital competence and to compare these constructs across virtual and face-to-face ESP instruction. An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was employed at Islamic Azad University in Tehran, Iran. In the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 35 ESP students to explore experiences of identity formation, interaction, and technology-mediated instruction. The findings informed the quantitative phase, in which researcher-developed and adapted questionnaires were administered to 308 participants, including 152 participants exposed to virtual instruction and 156 participants exposed to conventional instruction. The instruments assessed identity formation, ESP instructional qualities and competencies, identity perceptions, TPACK, and digital competence. Reliability and construct validity were examined using Cronbach’s alpha and exploratory factor analysis. Inferential analyses included chi-square tests, independent-samples t-tests, multivariate analysis of variance, and Pearson correlation coefficients. Virtual and conventional groups differed significantly on overall identity formation, Pillai’s Trace = .173, F(4,303) = 15.82, p < .001, partial η² = .173. Virtual participants scored significantly higher on identity moratorium, F(1,306) = 51.75, p < .001, partial η² = .145; identity foreclosure, F(1,306) = 12.73, p < .001, partial η² = .040; and identity diffusion, F(1,306) = 33.74, p < .001, partial η² = .099, but not identity achievement, p = .138. No significant differences emerged for overall ESP qualities and competencies, t(306) = .537, p = .592, or identity perceptions, t(306) = .452, p = .651. Virtual participants significantly outperformed conventional participants on combined TPACK and digital competence, Pillai’s Trace = .721, F(2,305) = 393.37, p < .001, partial η² = .721. All principal constructs were positively correlated, with coefficients ranging from r = .580 to r = .814, all p < .001. Virtual ESP instruction appears to substantially strengthen technology-related competence while producing a more complex pattern of identity exploration and uncertainty, suggesting that effective ESP instruction should integrate technological competence with meaningful student–teacher interaction and identity-supportive pedagogical practices.