Comparing Identity, TPACK, and Digital Competency in Virtual and Traditional Classrooms
Keywords:
Virtual classroom, traditional classroom, academic identity, TPACK, digital competency, higher education, technology-enhanced learningAbstract
The present study aimed to compare students’ academic identity, Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK), and digital competency across virtual and traditional classroom environments to determine how instructional modality influences learner development in higher education. This quantitative comparative study was conducted among 320 undergraduate students from universities in Tehran during the 2024–2025 academic year, including 160 students enrolled in fully virtual classrooms and 160 students participating in traditional face-to-face instruction. Participants were selected using stratified random sampling to ensure balanced representation across academic disciplines and gender. Data were collected using three standardized instruments measuring academic identity, TPACK, and digital competency based on validated Likert-scale questionnaires. Content validity was confirmed through expert review, and reliability indices exceeded acceptable thresholds. Data analysis was performed using SPSS and AMOS software. Descriptive statistics were calculated followed by independent samples t-tests, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple regression modeling to examine differences between instructional modalities and predictive relationships among study variables. Inferential analyses revealed statistically significant differences between virtual and traditional classroom students. Learners in virtual classrooms demonstrated significantly higher digital competency, stronger TPACK integration, and more developed academic identity compared with students in traditional environments (p < 0.05). Correlation analyses showed strong positive relationships among digital competency, TPACK, and identity. Regression analysis indicated that both digital competency and TPACK significantly predicted academic identity, jointly explaining a substantial proportion of variance in identity development. Structural modeling further suggested that digital competency functions as a mediating mechanism linking instructional modality to identity formation through enhanced technological–pedagogical integration. The findings indicate that virtual learning environments substantially enhance students’ technological competence and pedagogical integration, which in turn contribute to stronger academic identity development. Digital competency and TPACK emerge as central mechanisms through which modern instructional modalities shape learner outcomes.
Downloads
References
1. Rehman S. Impact of Digital Classroom Technologies on Learning Outcomes in Public Secondary Schools of Pakistan. Physical Education Health and Social Sciences. 2026;4(1):307-19. doi: 10.63163/jpehss.v4i1.1105.
2. Naidoo V. Online Learning Within Universities in the African Continent During COVID-19 and Beyond the Pandemic. 2023:267-83. doi: 10.4018/978-1-6684-6513-4.ch014.
3. Ayelaagbe SO. Virtual Classroom Learning: A Boon During Insecurity Among University Undergraduates. World Journal on Educational Technology Current Issues. 2025;17(2):80-8. doi: 10.18844/wjet.v17i2.9537.
4. Rood C, Barbour MK. Virtual Learning for Māori Students. Jofdl. 2024;28(1):8-27. doi: 10.61468/jofdl.v28i1.643.
5. Kurt I. Sociovirtualization and Educational Practices: Enhancing Learning in Virtual Environments. Proceedings of London International Conferences. 2025(14):38-48. doi: 10.31039/plic.2025.14.339.
6. Šmakić K. The Role of Dialogue in Hybrid Education. Limes-Plus. 2025;22(1):61. doi: 10.69899/limes-plus-en-252201-061s.
7. Shen J, Qi H, Mei RH, Sun C-C. A Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of Online and in-Class Team-Based Learning on Student Performance and Perceptions in Virtual Simulation Experiments. BMC Medical Education. 2024;24(1). doi: 10.1186/s12909-024-05080-3.
8. Sparboe-Nilsen B, Hjellset VT, Hagen M, Valla L. Norwegian Public Health Nursing Students’ Experiences With the Transition From Classroom to Online Lectures: Benefits and Challenges. Education Sciences. 2024;14(11):1185. doi: 10.3390/educsci14111185.
9. Umar F. Engaging With History in the Digital Age: A Study of Technology-Based Distance Learning in History. JPR. 2024;10(2):873-8. doi: 10.61506/02.00308.
10. Pysmenna O. Organizing Self-Education Activities for Medical College Students in the Context of Blended Learning. Bulletin of Alfred Nobel University Series Pedagogy and Psychology. 2024;1(27):123-32. doi: 10.32342/2522-4115-2024-1-27-14.
11. Ismiyani N, Suparjan, Timmis I. Students’ Voices on Online Learning: Constraints, Dissatisfactions, and Expectations. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (Ijim). 2024;18(03):117-28. doi: 10.3991/ijim.v18i03.42221.
12. González EL, Fabra N, Novella A, Sandin M, Torralba JM. The Tpack Model as a Hybrid Training Oportunity in Masters and Postgraduates Degrees. Aula De Encuentro. 2024;26(1):144-66. doi: 10.17561/ae.v26n1.8211.
13. Istiningsih I. Impact of ICT Integration on the Development of Vocational High School Teacher TPACK in the Digital Age 4.0. World Journal on Educational Technology Current Issues. 2022;14(1):103-16. doi: 10.18844/wjet.v14i1.6642.
14. Langat AK. Transition From Analogue to Digital Technology. 2024:89-118. doi: 10.4018/979-8-3373-0025-2.ch004.
15. Mollo PP. An Analysis of Student Teachers’ E-Readiness for Digital Education Environment in Covid-19 Times. 2022. doi: 10.36315/2022v2end002.
16. Paseka P. The E-Readiness of Student Teachers for 21st Century Teaching: Some Reflections From a University of Technology in South Africa. 2023. doi: 10.36315/2023eadviii27.
17. Pallavi DR, Ramachandran M, Chinnasamy S. An Empirical Study on Effectiveness of E-Learning Over Conventional Class Room Learning – A Case Study With Respect to Online Degree Programmes in Higher Education. RMC. 2022;3(1):25-33. doi: 10.46632/rmc/3/1/5.
18. Zheng S, Ong ET. Developing an Eclectic Blended Learning Model for Chinese University English Classrooms: a Methodological Framework. 2023. doi: 10.4108/eai.22-7-2023.2335115.
19. Roinah R, Sofiani IK, Susanti T, Sumarni T, Mahsuri M. Blended Learning to Enhance Productive Skills. International Journal of Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Education. 2024;03(10). doi: 10.58806/ijirme.2024.v3i10n04.
20. Ray S, Guha D. Integration of Flipped Classroom Model in Teacher Education Programme. Sprin Journal of Arts Humanities and Social Sciences. 2025;4(7):9-14. doi: 10.55559/sjahss.v4i7.517.
21. Ramadhani WP, Molle JS, Sabandar VP. Pengenalan Flipped Classroom Pada Blended Learning Untuk Meningkatkan Kompetensi Pedagogik Guru Sma Di Tehoru. Pakem Jurnal Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat. 2022;2(2):160-6. doi: 10.30598/pakem.2.2.160-166.
22. Hassan B, Raza M, Siddiqi Y, Wasiq MF, Siddiqui RA. CONNECT: An AI-Powered Solution for Student Authentication and Engagement in Cross-Cultural Digital Learning Environments. Computers. 2025;14(3):77. doi: 10.3390/computers14030077.
23. Borger JG. Getting to the CoRe of Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL). Frontiers in Education. 2022;7. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.987289.
24. Harris J, Seo M. Cultivating Collaborative Online International Learning (Coil) Experiences for Undergraduate Health Educators in the Classroom. 2023. doi: 10.36315/2023v2end112.
25. Ason A, Nugraha AE, Peterianus S. Analisis Pelaksanaan Kebijakan Pembelajaran Daring Pada Masa Pandemi Covid-19 Di Sma Bakti Setia Nanga Pinoh Kabupaten Melawi. Jurnal Kepemimpinan Dan Pengurusan Sekolah. 2022;7(1):107-22. doi: 10.34125/kp.v7i1.721.
26. Czwik A. Successfully Navigating Digital Storms in Croatian Education System. 2022. doi: 10.36315/2022v1end048.
27. Nurcahya Y. Local Wisdom Meets Digital Pedagogy: Integrating Indonesian Art Into Online Language Learning. International Journal of Digital Learning on Languages and Arts (Ijodlla). 2025;2(2):63-70. doi: 10.23887/ijodlla.v2i2.105008.
28. Manzone JA. Social Justice Through Socratic Seminars. 2022:33-59. doi: 10.4018/978-1-6684-4055-1.ch003.
29. Paudyal GR. Shift to Technology-Assisted Learning Through Blended Mode: University Teachers’ Experience. Prithvi Journal of Research and Innovation. 2022:103-15. doi: 10.3126/pjri.v4i1.50163.
30. Kiende H, Kariuki SI. Hybrid Learning: Paradigm Shift to Enhancing Instructional Practice in Technical and Vocational Institutions in Kenya. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development. 2022;11(3). doi: 10.24940/ijird/2022/v11/i3/mar22042.
31. Król‐Gierat W, Rak K. Analiza Projektów Studenckich Dotyczących Pracy Dydaktycznej Z Uczniami O Specjalnych Potrzebach Edukacyjnych W Klasie Włączającej I Zdigitalizowanym Środowisku – Odpowiedź Na Czasy Pandemii COVID-19. Neofilolog. 2022(58/2):227-39. doi: 10.14746/n.2022.58.2.6.
32. Zhong J, Li Z, Hu X, Wang L, Chen Y. Effectiveness Comparison Between Blended Learning of Histology Practical in Flipped Physical Classrooms and Flipped Virtual Classrooms for MBBS Students. BMC Medical Education. 2022;22(1). doi: 10.1186/s12909-022-03740-w.
33. Gil‐García IC, Fernández‐Guillamón A, García‐Cascales MS, Molina‐García Á. Virtual Campus Environments: A Comparison Between Interactive H5P and Traditional Online Activities in Master Teaching. Computer Applications in Engineering Education. 2023;31(6):1648-61. doi: 10.1002/cae.22665.
Downloads
Published
Submitted
Revised
Accepted
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Parisa Moradi (Author); Mohammad Golshan; Ali Akbar Moein, Farah Shooraki (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
